Utilitarianism

Nonfiction | Essay / Speech | Adult | Published in 1861

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Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Chapters 1-2

Chapters 3-4

Chapter 5

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Chapters 1-2Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Chapter 1 Summary: “General Remarks”

In the first chapter of Utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill provides an overview of the general problems involved in the formation of a philosophy of morality and, in particular, the utilitarian philosophy. In Mill’s view, moral philosophers have made “little progress…respecting the criterion of right and wrong” (115). Mill argues that the “foundation of morality,” or those basic principles upon which morals are based, lacks clarity since the initial Greek philosophers first began their investigations of morality and not much has happened in many years.

Mill explains that most moral philosophy falls into two different schools of thought: the inductive school of ethics and the intuitive school of ethics. Intuitive ethicists hold that all moral laws are based upon a group of moral principles which all individuals know “a priori,” or unrelated to any specific experience they might have. Inductive ethicists also believe in the existence of a set of general moral principles, but they also believe that individuals must discover these principles through “observation and experience” (116). While both schools of moral thought contend that a set of principles guide morality, Mill writes that neither has attempted to define what these principles are.

In Utilitarianism, Mill aims to establish the foundation of these primary principles, upon which all moral decisions are based. Mill argues that a single principle lies at the core of all moral discussions: “the principle of utility” (117). The English philosopher Jeremy Bentham first proposed this principle, naming it “the greatest-happiness principle” (117). According to this principle, individuals are motivated by a desire to increase a feeling of happiness (or pleasure) and a desire to avoid pain. In Mill’s view, though unacknowledged, this principle can be found at the heart of all other works of moral philosophy. For instance, philosopher Immanuel Kant’s famous Metaphysics of Ethics relies on precisely this principle when Kant describes “the origin and ground of moral obligation” (117-118). Mill closes his introduction by arguing that he can never offer definitive proof for utilitarianism. Such a proof would require Mill to argue that happiness is good, and Mill believes that it is impossible to prove that something is inherently good or bad. Rather, Mill argues that the individual can agree or disagree with his ideas.

Chapter 2 Summary: “What Utilitarianism Is”

In this section of his essay, Mill provides a definition for his theory of utilitarianism. At the core of Mill’s theory is the “Utility, or, the Greatest Happiness Principle” discussed in Chapter 1. Mill explains that happiness is synonymous with pleasure, meaning that the principle of utility argues that humans act both to increase their pleasure and avoid pain. As Mill believes that humans undertake all actions as a means to accomplish this principle, he argues that this principle must be the primary principle upon which all moral decisions are based.

Mill notes that his theory of utilitarianism is often misunderstood. Most people believe that “utility is opposed to pleasure” (120) and imagine that a moral life is one devoid “of beauty, or ornament, or of amusement” (120). As well, critics of utilitarianism argue that Mill places too high an emphasis on pleasure as the main goal of life, believing that a life based on the pursuit of pleasure is a life in which humans succumb to their animalistic instincts. Mill counters this objection: while humans do seek out animalistic pleasures, they are also capable of higher pleasures which are more rewarding than animalistic ones. Mill argues that any human being who possesses “higher faculties” will always choose a life dedicated to these higher pleasures rather than giving into their base temptations.

Throughout the rest of the chapter, Mill responds to a number of different objections and critiques that can be levied against his theory. One critique concerns individuals who live a life of “self-sacrifice” and devote their lives to helping others; these individuals do not appear to need happiness. Mill argues that even though such individuals forgo happiness and pleasure, they do so to better society and to “earn for others immunity from similar sacrifices” (129). Further, Mill notes that followers of utilitarianism are primarily concerned with the happiness of society as a whole, rather than their own. For Mill, this approach to life is similar to the teachings of Jesus and shows how utilitarianism is actually aligned with religious thought.

Another chief criticism of utilitarianism is that its emphasis on bettering the good of society leads individuals to become “cold and sympathizing…[and] chills their moral feelings towards individuals” (133). Such critics believe that utilitarianism encourages individuals to apply a moral calculus to every action they undertake and only choose actions which actively serve the betterment of society. Mill contends that utilitarianism is only meant to help understand the basis for moral actions. As such, it is not meant to be a guide for every single action an individual undertakes; after all, numerous actions have no relation whatsoever to morals or to the betterment of society as a whole. Mill argues that adherents to utilitarianism “are quite aware that there are other desirable […] qualities besides virtue” (134) and that an individual must cultivate numerous aspects of his or her personality that do not relate to being virtuous if they are to be considered good people.

Chapters 1-2 Analysis

In the first two chapters of “Utilitarianism,” Mill focuses on introducing his readers to the ideas of utilitarianism as well as its importance to the general field of moral philosophy. In “General Remarks,” Mill provides a brief overview of how he perceives of moral philosophy as a general discipline. Mill views utilitarianism as an important intervention into moral philosophy due to the fact that it provides a single general law which functions as the foundation of all morality. By identifying a missing component of the philosophical discussion of morality and then filling in the gap himself, Mill demonstrates his broad understanding of the field and establishes himself as a credible source of information.

In Chapter 2, Mill focuses on defining the principle of utility, which identifies happiness as the core of morality: “actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness” (121). Mill’s comparison of utilitarianism to Christian teachings demonstrates that his interpretation of happiness has little to do with hedonism or a single-minded and selfish pursuit of pleasure; in fact, happiness within the context of utilitarianism has implications for the greater good as well as ideals such as virtue and self-sacrifice. Utilitarianism is a philosophy concerned with the general happiness of society, rather than the individual, and it encourages its adherents to embrace helping others and living virtuously, rather than simply succumbing to animalistic desires.