The Invention of Nature: Alexander von Humboldt's New World

George Perkins Marsh emerged as a pivotal figure in the early environmental movement, deeply influenced by Humboldt. Marsh, an American diplomat and linguist, keenly followed Humboldt’s work, regarding him as a notable influence on his understanding of the interplay between humanity and the natural world. This connection deeply shaped Marsh’s work, which outlined the destructive impact of human activity on the environment.

Marsh returned to Burlington, Vermont, from New York, where he was immersed in various academic and creative endeavors to alleviate his financial woes. Despite his myriad professional pursuits, Marsh’s primary focus was accumulating knowledge and preparing to write a critical analysis of human-induced environmental degradation. His library boasted an extensive collection of German books, including works by Humboldt, underscoring the high regard in which Marsh held German contributions to science and knowledge.

Marsh’s appreciation for Humboldt was not merely academic; it was also personal, as indicated by his pleasure in his sister-in-law’s marriage to Frederick Wislizenus, a German botanist mentioned in Humboldt’s writings. Marsh’s linguistic prowess—fluency in 20 languages—and his method of integrating German terms into his communication are highlighted, showcasing his deep engagement with German scientific literature.

Central to this chapter is the portrayal of Marsh as a relentless scholar with a robust commitment to environmental issues, influenced by Humboldt’s holistic view of nature. This influence is evident in Marsh’s efforts to document how human actions have historically altered natural landscapes, leading to environmental degradation. This groundwork laid by Marsh, coupled with his extensive knowledge and respect for Humboldt’s work, would eventually culminate in his influential writings on environmental conservation.

The narrative explores Ernst Haeckel’s journey as a scientist who was influenced by Humboldt. At the news of Humboldt’s death in 1859, Haeckel, a young German zoologist, experienced a personal and professional crisis, torn between his passions for art and science. This chapter details Haeckel’s struggle to reconcile these interests and the way Humboldt’s integration of scientific inquiry with artistic appreciation influenced him.

While conducting zoological research in Naples, Haeckel grappled with the challenges of his scientific endeavors, finding the discipline restrictive compared to the allure of the Italian landscape, which tempted him away from his studies. His frustration was compounded by his inability to collect sufficient specimens, leading him to question his path as a scientist versus an artist. Wulf frames Haeckel’s introspections with his deep admiration for Humboldt, whose works had inspired him since childhood to view nature holistically, combining scientific rigor with aesthetic appreciation.

The chapter traces Haeckel’s eventual embrace of Humboldt’s philosophy, illustrating his journey through personal letters and experiences that highlight his evolving understanding of the interconnectedness of life. Haeckel’s transformative experience in Naples, driven by his confrontation with Humboldt’s death, catalyzed his future work in which he advanced Humboldt’s ideas, pioneering the field of ecology and integrating it with artistic methods to communicate scientific concepts. Wulf depicts Haeckel’s development as a synthesis of scientific curiosity and artistic creativity, influenced by Humboldt’s interdisciplinary approach to understanding nature.

The narrative focuses on John Muir and his intense connection to nature, which was deeply influenced by Humboldt. Born in Scotland and raised in a strict, religious household, Muir developed a fervent love for the wild from a young age—a passion further fueled by his readings of Humboldt’s works. This passion led him to America, where he sought the freedom to explore nature unfettered.

Muir’s journey began earnestly with his relocation to Indianapolis, followed by a pivotal moment of clarity and purpose when he narrowly escaped conscription during the US Civil War by fleeing to Canada. This period was marked by introspection and the burgeoning of his botanical interests, which solidified his resolve to follow in Humboldt’s footsteps. His plans, however, were abruptly interrupted by a severe injury that temporarily blinded him, deepening his resolve to connect with nature once he recovered.

Upon his recovery, Muir embarked on a 1,000-mile walk from Indianapolis to Florida, an experience that dramatically shaped his ecological perspective. This transformative journey illuminated the intricate connections within ecosystems and reinforced his desire to see and preserve these natural systems as whole entities, not mere collections of parts.

The chapter chronicles Muir’s eventual move to California, where he fell in love with Yosemite Valley, dedicating his life to its preservation and the broader conservation movement. His efforts were instrumental in the establishment of Yosemite National Park and the founding of the Sierra Club, marking significant milestones in environmental conservation.

Muir’s journey is portrayed as one of spiritual and scientific awakening, driven by his encounters with the natural world and his readings of Humboldt, who provided the philosophical underpinnings of his conservation efforts.

The Epilogue explores why Humboldt has faded from collective memory in the English-speaking world, despite his vast influence on people’s understanding of nature. Humboldt’s interdisciplinary approach—which intertwined art, history, poetry, and politics with scientific data—lost relevance as scientific disciplines became more specialized. His methods and holistic view of nature as a dynamic global force were overshadowed as scientists narrowed their focus.

Humboldt’s legacy of making science accessible to a broad audience—from farmers to politicians—was celebrated widely during his time, but his generalist perspective didn’t lead to a singular discovery like that of Columbus or Newton, making his contributions less recognized in the form of distinct achievements. Instead, his holistic worldview seamlessly integrated into modern consciousness, causing the man behind the ideas to be overlooked.

Further diminishing his visibility, anti-German sentiment during and after the World Wars led to a decline in his popularity in countries like Britain and the United States. Public acts such as the renaming of streets and the burning of German books, including Humboldt’s works, exemplified this shift.

Despite these historical shifts, Humboldt’s relevance persists, particularly in contemporary discussions of climate change and environmental science. His belief in the free exchange of information and interdisciplinary collaboration reflects modern scientific principles and underscores the urgent need to address global environmental crises. His insights into the interconnectedness of human activity, economic systems, and environmental impact resonate with many people today, suggesting that Humboldt’s ideas remain a vital foundation for current and future ecological and environmental studies.