The Discourses

A major power in Renaissance Italy, Florence is a republic and then an autocracy ruled by the Medici family. Florence dominates its region commercially and militarily and is home to a vast trove of fine art, including Michelangelo’s famous statue of David. Machiavelli, who serves for a time as a Florentine diplomat, in the Discourses contrasts Florence’s relatively feeble foreign policy with the vigorous one of ancient Rome. 

Freedom, or liberty, is an important issue in the Discourses, as it represents the central virtue of a republic, which exists to preserve the freedom of its people. Chief among the freedom-protecting powers of the Roman Republic are its tribunes, who act as counterweights against the wealthy senate, which might otherwise ride roughshod over the commoners. Another asset of the Roman system is elections, which confer power upon everyone, including the commoners. Machiavelli’s arguments in favor of republics—especially the Roman type, with its elected leaders, legislatures, and powerful armies—influence later generations of freedom fighters, especially during the American Revolution. 

Central to Machiavelli’s theory of republican government is that a great man must found the state, and that without such a person, no republic can begin. This leader has the courage, ability, wisdom, and audacity to sweep aside all objections and act decisively, sometimes cruelly, to create the new nation. It is vital, of course, that this leader be of excellent character, but most men of similar will and ability are not good men and usually will establish dictatorships. A good leader is also vital to the more difficult challenge of reforming a corrupt state. Such reforms rarely succeed, but when they do, at the center will be found the single man of fortitude.

The nobles, or patricians, are the original aristocracy of Rome who, during the republic, control the senate. They tend to be wealthy, their interests often aligned against the plebeian commoners. 

In 1500 the papacy, or rulership of the popes, is a military as well as spiritual power; during this time, popes are chosen from the most powerful families of Italy, including the Medicis and Borgias. The papacy’s foreign policy is critiqued, sometimes severely, by Machiavelli.

The plebeians, or commoners, are the ordinary citizens of Rome, as contrasted with the nobles. They are represented by an assembly and tribunes. The plebeians make up most of the army and otherwise are farmers or tradespeople.

A prince is a ruler of a city or state who has complete authority over a country by aristocratic right of birth or force of arms. In the Discourses, the words “prince,” “king,” and “ruler” are used more or less interchangeably. A prince’s power arises from tradition or dictatorial dominance, whereas the authority of a leader in a republic comes from the consent of the people. A prince has the freedom to rule arbitrarily, insofar as he can, while a Roman consul, for example, must obey the laws of his state. In some situations, especially foreign affairs and the conduct of war, both prince and republican leader have great leeway, and it is in these instances that Machiavelli’s arguments and advice are much more practical and hard-nosed than idealistic. 

For Machiavelli, a republic is a city or state governed for the benefit of its people rather than for the selfish purposes of a tyrant. A republic must be founded on principles that strongly support the will of the people, generally through democratic institutions; it must encourage the election of civic-minded leaders and protect the state against corruption and the rise of demagogues and dictators.

Rome becomes a republic in 509 BCE after overthrowing a monarchy. For nearly 500 years, the republic thrives, its people, rich and poor, sharing in the management of its government and the conquest of the nations around it. Late in its history, conflict breaks out between plebeian commoners and nobles of the senate over distribution of the agricultural wealth of the nation. Thus damaged, the republic is overthrown by Julius Caesar, who establishes a dictatorship that is handed down to tyrants who rule as emperors for centuries thereafter.

It is the Roman Republic that interests Machiavelli, who admires its techniques of governance and habits of good citizenship. Machiavelli contrasts the Rome’s republic with the rather tepid ones of his own Florence and nearby Venice, whom he believes struggle because they have forgotten the virtues established by early Rome. 

The ancient Roman senate is made up of nobles, men of great wealth and, according to Machiavelli, populated by people of dignity and heroism. The senate enacts laws that affect all the people of Rome; it is balanced by the tribunes, who represent the common people as leaders of their assembly. 

Elected by the plebeians, Roman tribunes are the commoners’ counterpart to the consuls. Tribunes have veto powers over some legislation passed by the senate. They convene the plebeian assembly, which passes laws that pertain specifically to the commoners.