The Book of the Courtier

Castiglione opens Book 2 by critiquing nostalgia, especially as it applies to perceptions of the court. He argues that “nature nowadays produces men are more capable than in the past” (110). The discussion resumes on the following day with Unico Aretino’s assertion: “the courtier should possess good judgement” (112). Federico Fregoso contends that mistakes are often inconspicuous to those making them. He agrees with Count Ludovico’s definition of the courtier from the previous day, and adds that the courtier should manage his affairs successfully without arousing envy. In the manner of the Stoics, the courtier should be virtuous and “cautious” (114). He should ensure his superiors see his successes on the battlefield. Only honour should lead the courtier to war, but in this and sports he should “attract the eyes of the onlookers in his direction as surely as the lodestone attracts iron” (116). Even while dancing, the courtier should maintain dignity in front of his audience. The courtier should partake in any masques and games as an equal yet maintain his rank in military displays and refrain from mixing with common people. He should be able to sing before an audience, but exercise discretion in whether this is appropriate.

Federico discusses the merits and proclivities of young and old men, explaining that self-possession shows strength. The courtier should “devote all his thought and strength to loving and honestly serving the Prince he serves above all else” (125). Pietro de Napoli retorts “it seems to me that in a few words you have sketched for us the first class flatterer” (125). True love of his prince, Federico contends, is not flattery. He continues by saying that the courtier should avoid criticism and practice humility. Ludovico Pio asks how a courtier should respond when he is asked to do something dishonourable. Federico answers that courtiers must obey their prince in everything that honours him, but not what brings him shame.

The conversation turns to how the courtier should dress. Federico suggests sober attire is preferable to “foppish” (135). Cesare Gonzaga adds “refined” to the list, but agrees that the courtier should avoid appearing “effeminate” (136). Federico asserts that a man’s choice of friends affects his reputation. Trusting is risky but friendship contains “the best of life” (138). The courtier should choose his friends wisely. One’s favor with power determines one’s fortune.

Gaspare calls women unreasonable but is rebutted by the Duchess and then by Federico, who reminds Gaspare of instances of his own fickleness. Federico compares the relative merits of Spanish, French, and Italian courtiers. Courtiers should be well-briefed and treat others with equanimity, but remember that self-denigration is unnecessary. Federico allows others to believe in an idealized version of oneself, which Pallavinco calls deception. Federico reproves Pallavinco, calling this “embellishment” a jewellery enhancing a gemstone, and proceeds to advocate “the golden mean” (150).

The Prefect asks Federico to explain how the courtier should best entertain, as this is important for the courtier. Federico gives the examples of anecdotes and quips, before conferring the responsibility on Bernardo. Laughter, Bernardo claims, “exalts a man’s spirit” (155). He argues that the source of comedy is “incongruity” (155), but the courtier should avoid mocking the popular, lest he make dangerous enemies. There are three kinds of jokes, namely anecdotes, quips, and practical jokes. In telling jokes, “embroidery” may be used, but the story should be recounted “effortlessly” (158). Mimicry or imitation is a practical joke. The courtier should also “eschew satire that is too cruel” (160). It is however amusing to list all the defects of an individual, provided they are minor. Bernardo and Bembo exchange jokes about Venetians, Florentines, and Sienese. Bernardo follows up with a story about a Portuguese mariner beaten at chess by a monkey.

The conversation continues, with the courtiers stating that affectation is amusing when taken to an extreme and courtiers should avoid the appearance of clownishness. To illustrate this, Magnifico Giuliano tells the story of a Tuscan merchant. Bernardo then turns to quips, which rely on surprise, puns, and double entendres. These should be neither cruel nor discourteous, simply amusing. Wordplay is another skill, along with the incongruous citation of verse. It is also amusing to intentionally misinterpret the meaning of something, or to use a word out of context. Mixing registers can be witty, as can intentionally misinterpreting the meaning of another. Metaphors can be used sarcastically by elaborating another’s metaphor, especially when the initial metaphor was intended seriously. Courtiers can be facetious, but irreligious jokes, which tend towards blasphemy, should be avoided, as should indecent jokes while in the company of women. Gaspare Pallavinco asserts that women love such jokes, but he is rebuked by Emilia.

Bernardo continues his enumeration of devices used to amuse, such as statements that are far from the truth, or inadvertently rebuking someone. Alternatively, “a very sophisticated kind of joke relies on a certain amount of dissimulation” (177). This kind can be potent and was common in the classical world. It is also amusing to give another interpretation to someone’s words from that intended. Likewise, when a man is stung by the same thing in which he had just triumphed over his peer. Subtly disguised humour, digging a hole for oneself, and misinterpretations of events are also amusing. Yet courtiers should not joke too often, without awareness of their relative rank, or in bitterness or anger.

Bernardo takes up the theme of practical jokes, which should be “amicable” (188) rather than offensive. He recalls how two noblewomen, having been told a cowherd is a man of great importance, proceed to talk deferentially to him. Another kind of practical joke involves a man tricking himself, such as when a masked Bernardo told a friar that the chief of police was looking for him, only to discover the ‘friar’ was his own groom. It is also amusing to intentionally misunderstand another. For instance, Bernardo pretended his friend Cesare Beccadello was mad, and a crowd gathered to restrain him. There are many jokes in Boccaccio, but the best practical joker was a Sicilian student of Bernardo’s who fooled a peasant into giving him his capons.

Bernardo claims that women can joke at men’s expense more freely than the other way around, because it is ungentlemanly to threaten a woman’s honour. Ottaviano Fregoso contends that women have little honour, and is rebuked by the Duchess. Bernardo claims that the deceptions women do to their husbands in Boccaccio are “very neat and clever” (197). Signor Gaspare interjects by claiming that only difficulties in love can excuse such behavior. Bernardo asserts that the courtier should be sincere in love, rather than employ treachery. Gaspare argues that such deception is necessary, and few worthy men respect women. Bernardo disputes this, and the Duchess intimates to her ladies-in-waiting to pretend to assault Gaspare. Magnifico Giuliano suggests that they determine the necessary traits of a court lady. The Duchess agrees, but this task is left to the following night.