Shirley

The early 19th century was a time of great social unrest in Britain. Following the French and American revolutions at the end of the previous century, there was concern in Britain about the sustainability of the existing nation state and the possibility of revolution. Radicals saw revolution as a model and opportunity for social change which, in turn, led to reactionary measures from conservatives and those with vested interests in existing hierarchical structures. During the Napoleonic Wars of 1799-1815, Britain was repeatedly at war in Europe, which had significant effects on British industry and economy, as well as on society and political ideas. Britain was simultaneously in the midst of its Industrial Revolution, a period of increased mechanization that drove huge economic growth and had enormous impacts on society, both negative and positive. Although education, social mobility, and a burgeoning of the middle classes did occur over this time, nearly all financial benefits remained in the hands of the established elite minority, based on the aristocracy and landed class. In a deeply unequal society, the progression of the Industrial Revolution caused harm to the vast majority of the population, most of whom were uneducated, unskilled, and living in financial insecurity, if not absolute poverty. A huge growth in population and a movement of people into ever-larger urban centers to seek work altered the traditional structures of society and created a large urban class of workers living in squalid conditions and undertaking work that was dangerous, difficult, insecure, and poorly paid. There was an increasing divide between the industrial North and the South, which maintained more of its traditional, agrarian way of life. These changes, difficulties, and inequalities were the subject of considerable concern, debate, and action at the time, including measures to control and punish the poor, and for reform and relief. It is in this context that Shirley was written, and its themes form part of the wider discourse around social change, progress, and justice.

The novel is specifically set in Yorkshire from 1811-1812, at the time of the Luddite revolts. Technological advances enabled factory owners, particularly in textiles, to bring in machinery that increased productivity and reduced cost, replacing the skilled and semi-skilled (male) workers who worked in the industry before mechanization. Factory owners further reduced their costs, as only unskilled, cheaper workers were required to work in mechanized factories, often women and children. In the 1810s, several riots and acts of protest were carried out by male textile workers, many of them violent. They became known as “Luddites” due to their support of Ned Ludd who was supposed to have smashed the frames in a factory when machines were introduced. What became known as the Luddite Uprisings occurred in the northern counties of England, where industrialized centers were concentrated and where deprived urban populations were particularly affected. As portrayed in Brontë’s novel, this unrest caused a sense of danger and insecurity and often led to violence and injury, as well as punitive actions from factory owners and the criminal justice system.

Shirley is also significant for addressing the changes and challenges in female roles and identity during this time. Despite a wave of feminist discourse during the Enlightenment, the role of women in society in 19th-century Britain was clearly defined by both legal and social rules. Although some women could hold property (widows and single women), under the laws of coverture all a woman’s rights and property were subsumed by her husbands after marriage. Women had little to no personal rights over their own bodies or their life choices: they were expected to marry and have children and this was the only realistic prospect for the vast majority. Young and single women were also expected to behave demurely and to be guided in their families’ preferences in accepting a marriage proposal. Independent or single women were treated with suspicion and disapproval (if wealthy), or ridicule (if poor). Shirley’s independently wealthy circumstances would have been extremely rare at the time.

Many working-class women worked outside the home, especially as the economic push toward cheap and unskilled labor pulled women—who were by definition paid far less than men—into industry. As working and living conditions worsened, it became necessary for all the members of families, including young children, to work. For women of the upper and middle classes, employment was considered taboo and very few choices were open to women who found themselves and/or their families in financial need. Single, educated women could work as teachers or governesses, but these positions were invariably very badly paid, of low status, and placed women at the mercy of a household’s or institution’s complete control. Writing was open to educated women although there were significant barriers to success for women and any income a married woman earned would belong to her husband. Women were paid less than men, were considered to be less serious and were expected to write certain types of literature. Some of these boundaries were broken by women such as the Brontës by publishing under male or androgynous pseudonyms. It is significant that, after the success of their first publications led the sisters to reveal their identities and gender, the books which had been lauded as male masterpieces became subject to growing controversy and criticism as unsuitable, dangerous, and—even—less brilliant.

Shirley also stands out among Brontë’s novels for its detailed discussions of women’s place in society and as a serious exploration of women’s struggle with their roles and expectations at this time. It is also one of many novels published around this time that have an industrial setting and that explore the effects of the Industrial Revolution on society and women in particular. Although female authors were rare at the time, Charlotte Brontë does belong to a small yet influential tradition of female authors, including Elizabeth Gaskell and George Eliot as well as her own sisters­, who wrote similar proto-feminist narratives engaging with the great social, economic, and political changes of the period. “Proto-feminist” is the term used for theories, works, and people who were active before the term “feminist” was coined but which express principles similar to feminism, and which may have been influential in the development of modern feminist thought.