Of Grammatology

Boustrophedon refers to a winding form of writing that starts from right to left, then returns from left to write, following one continuous motion across the page. Rousseau argues that this form of writing fell away in lieu of a form that benefitted the economy of the hand. He portrays this transition as one more step in the formalization of language and its deferment from authenticity.

Deconstruction is an approach to understanding text outside of traditional interpretation. Many philosophers operated under Plato’s theories that everything has a true form and essence. Derrida challenges this assumption, building his theory on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure. Deconstruction asserts that nothing can be understood outside of its context, meaning that words can only be understood within the context of their opposite. For example, the word “love” has no meaning without its attachment to its opposite, “hate.” Deconstruction also proposes that one word is always given a higher ranking than another. In the previous example, love is ranked higher than hate. Derrida introduces deconstruction as a way of overturning the hierarchical structure of language and challenging oppositions.

Demotic is a form of Egyptian script. Used alongside Egyptian hieroglyphics, it was primarily for document writing. Rousseau’s arguments about the origins of language assert that Demotic script is the second stage of the development of contemporary writing.

Différance is the combination of two French words: “difference” and “differer.” Derrida uses this term to refer to the way words and signifiers change over time, space, context, and audience. Différance explains why two people may read the same text and conclude vastly different interpretations.

Ethnocentrism is the application of one’s own culture to the examination of other cultures. Derrida proposes that logocentrism leads to ethnocentrism, which Derrida argues should be overturned.

Coined by Ludwig Klages in the early 20th century, logocentrism suggests that words and language represent a fundamental reality of the external world. Derrida argues that logocentrism is connected to ethnocentrism and exerts control over writing and science.

Metaphysics is difficult to define, and its meaning changes depending on the philosopher and field. Broadly, metaphysics refers to the study of the nature of reality or being. Studies within metaphysics may center on the mind or consciousness. Derrida established the theory of “metaphysics of presence,” which proposes that Western philosophy has been too preoccupied with seeking meaning, particularly meaning in the presence of concepts and objects. Derrida argues that the focus on presence creates a prejudice that ignores negation and absence.

Phenomenology refers to the study of conscious, or individual, experience. Derrida began his career studying Husserl, who suggested that human experience is always directed toward something through specific context. This context—such as thoughts or images—gives meaning to experience. Derrida criticizes Husserl’s work in Speech and Phenomena.

A phoné is a distinct sound or gesture, the most basic unit of language. In semiotics, a phoné may represent a vowel or consonant. Derrida also uses the term to refer to a spoken word.

Phonocentrism refers to the preference for speech over writing. Derrida argues that philosophy, science, and metaphysics privilege speech in the binary opposition of these two concepts.

Rousseau uses “polyphony” to refer to the use of harmonization or clashing notes in music. He argues that adding harmony to classical music indicates the decline of society.

Postmodernism was a movement in the late 20th century that centered on the dismantling of grand concepts of history, or “grand narratives.” Postmodernism challenged the stability of meaning and binary oppositions. Derrida was an important figure in the movement. In particular, his development of the theory of deconstruction was an important tool for the disassembly of modernist thought.

Post-structuralism, as a response to structuralism, asserts that language is neither fixed nor concrete. Within language, post-structuralism suggests that definitions are neither precise nor static. Derrida applies his technique of deconstruction to apply close textual analysis, revealing the slipperiness of language and fluidity of structures.

These three terms are best understood as they relate to one another. A sign is anything that conveys or communicates meaning. For example, the word “person” is a sign. Each sign is comprised of two parts: the signified and the signifier. The signified is the material object the sign refers to. In this example, a human standing on the sidewalk may be the signified of the sign “person.” The signifier is the sign’s physical form. The word “person” printed in this definition represents the signifier.

Structuralism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the relationship of the individual to the larger system and the existence of structural patterns that govern human behavior and experience. The theory began in the early 20th century, built on Ferdinand de Saussure’s concept of structure. Structuralism proposes that human experience is the product of influence by various structures, including historical and political context. Within the context of language, structuralism suggests that words have no meaning other than the tangible and abstract realities they signify.