Nexus: A Brief History of Information Networks from the Stone Age to AI

In Chapter 2, Harari explores the idea that Homo Sapiens dominate the world not because of superior intelligence but because of our unique ability to “cooperate flexibly in large numbers” (18). This cooperation is driven by shared stories and myths, which allow humans to connect and organize even without personal relationships. With the capacity to “tell and believe fictional stories and to be deeply moved by them” (19), humans created a new way to organize information. 

Unlike other animals, humans create intersubjective realities—concepts like nations, religions, and corporations—that exist only through collective belief. Stories enable these large-scale connections by making people imagine shared experiences or beliefs, creating powerful bonds that extend beyond biological ties. Historical and modern examples include religious narratives, personality cults in totalitarian dictatorships, branding of products and leaders, and collective beliefs in currencies and laws. 

Harari details the way in which these stories can transcend truth, such as the numerous “doubtful or inaccurate” (21) features of the Cher Ami story. The story may not have been wholly true, but it served a propaganda purpose by telling a story. In religion, “the Jesus story” (22) is a similar collective belief that unites people through narrative. This storytelling ability is key to forming massive networks that shape human society and history.

Harari discusses the role of stories such as the Jewish Passover story in shaping human societies and their impact on power dynamics. He argues that storytelling enabled Homo Sapiens to create large-scale networks and tribes, which gave them an advantage over other species like Neanderthals. Materialist views, such as Marxism, attribute historical events solely to economic interests and power relations, which Harari uses to highlight that intersubjective realities—beliefs and myths shared by groups—play a crucial role in defining identities and guiding human actions. These intersubjective realities include states, currencies, and laws. He believes that large-scale human cooperation is made possible by shared fictions, not just objective truths. Such was the case of the rise of Nazism in Germany, which is why Harari warns that these intersubjective realities can be “mesmerizing but harmful” (31).

Harari also contrasts political systems based on acknowledged legal fictions (e.g., the US Constitution) with those claiming divine origin (e.g., the Biblical 10 Commandments), arguing that admitting fallibility allows for adaptability and change. He argues that such self-correcting mechanisms are vital. Furthermore, Harari examines the balance between truth and order, suggesting that while truth leads to scientific progress, order often relies on myths to unite people. 

Technological progress can help humans to distribute information more efficiently and more quickly, but this progress is not always a moral good. These innovations can be used to share “a deranged and murderous mythology” (38), for example, and threaten social cohesion. Ultimately, Harari emphasizes the challenge of balancing the pursuit of truth with maintaining social cohesion—a dilemma that persists throughout human history.

In Chapter 3, Harari discusses how storytelling was “the first crucial information technology developed by humans” (40). Harari highlights the narrative-defining influence of poets and visionaries like Hayim Nahman Bialik and Theodor Herzl on the Zionist movement and the establishment of Israel, noting how their stories inspired Jewish nationalism but also “ignored many crucial facts about contemporary reality” (42), leading to the negative consequences for Arab inhabitants and other Jewish communities. 

Harari contrasts stories, which are memorable and emotionally engaging, with lists and data essential for managing the practical aspects of a nation, such as taxation and administration. He emphasizes that while stories help us make sense of the world and inspire action, written documents and lists are crucial for handling the complex information needed for societal functions. This distinction underscores the complementary nature of stories and lists in shaping and maintaining modern societies.

The written document was “invented many times in many places” (45). In ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia, written documents were crucial in creating and managing social, economic, and political systems. They allowed for the accurate recording of information, like deliveries or ownership, beyond what human memory could handle. Although these documents did not always accurately represent reality, they created new realities by formalizing concepts like ownership and debt. 

Harari discusses how new information technologies, like written documents, solved old problems but created new challenges, particularly in retrieving information. Unlike the human brain, which is highly efficient at retrieving stored information, documents required a new system of organization. This led to the creation of bureaucracy, a method to categorize and manage information systematically. Bureaucracy solved the retrieval problem but also introduced distortions in understanding reality as it “tends to sacrifice truth for order” (50). Many modern issues, such as biased algorithms, stem from these inherent problems of bureaucracy, which existed long before computers.

Bureaucracy imposes artificial order on the world, often distorting reality by forcing complex situations into rigid categories. This approach, while helpful for maintaining order, sacrifices truth and limits a holistic understanding of reality. Harari also discusses how bureaucracy affects scientific disciplines, leading to a fragmented understanding of interconnected issues. For example, biology, history, and mathematics often operate in isolation, limiting their ability to address complex phenomena like pandemics. 

Even biological classification systems, like species definitions, struggle to accommodate the fluid nature of evolution. While bureaucracy can sometimes distort reality in favor of order, it plays a crucial role in maintaining large-scale human networks and systems. Bureaucratic institutions, like hospitals and sewage systems, are essential for delivering services that improve our lives. The example of the 1854 cholera outbreak in London, solved by John Snow’s methodical data collection and analysis, highlights how bureaucracy’s systematic approach “saved millions of lives” (56). Modern sewage systems, created and maintained by bureaucratic processes, prevent waterborne diseases and improve public health. While not glamorous, bureaucracy is a fundamental part of a well-functioning state.

Mythology and bureaucracy are the “twin pillars of every large-scale society” (56). While mythology often inspires fascination, bureaucracy tends to inspire suspicion. Bureaucracies are difficult to understand, making it hard for people to discern whether they are beneficial or corrupt. Unlike tribal societies, where power is tied to myths and direct human interactions, bureaucratic societies rely on documents, which shift authority to those skilled in navigating them. This shift often strengthens central authority at the expense of ordinary citizens. 

While mythology and art focus on familiar biological dramas rooted in evolution, like family dynamics and romantic rivalries, they struggle to explain the complex workings of bureaucracies. Franz Kafka and other modern storytellers have attempted to depict the often “nightmarish character of bureaucracies” (62). However, because our minds are wired to focus on biological dramas, it remains challenging for art to fully capture the mechanisms of bureaucracy.

Harari explores the complex and often frustrating role of bureaucracy throughout history, as well as the potential harm caused by official documents. Bureaucratic systems can be misunderstood, sometimes appearing as oppressive forces even when they provide essential services like healthcare or justice. In Shakespeare’s Henry VI, for example, the characters express disdain for bureaucracy and legal documents. During instances like the Peasants’ Revolt and the Great Jewish Revolt, rebels destroyed documents to challenge bureaucratic control. 

Harari also shares a personal family story, illustrating the tragic consequences of bureaucracy. His grandfather, Bruno Luttinger, lost his Romanian citizenship due to antisemitic policies in the 1930s, which required Jews to prove their citizenship through inaccessible or destroyed documents. This led to his “bureaucratic hell” (66), statelessness, and immense difficulty in escaping the rising danger of fascism. Eventually, Bruno fled to Palestine, where he gained citizenship by enlisting in the British army. The family’s experience instilled a deep awareness of the importance of preserving documents, reflecting the power bureaucracies wield over people’s lives.

Harari also describes the dual nature of bureaucratic information networks, which can be either harmful or beneficial, depending on their design and use. He argues that simply increasing the amount of information does not ensure a balance between truth and order. Looking ahead, future information networks, especially those powered by AI, will surpass traditional bureaucracies in data processing and storytelling. However, he emphasizes that these systems, like their predecessors, prioritize order and can sacrifice truth for stability. Harari suggests that understanding the mechanisms that prevent information networks, including AI, from becoming disconnected from truth is crucial.