Le Lai de Lanval

Le Lai de Lanval is a lai, or narrative poem, about one of King Arthur’s knights named Lanval. It was originally written in French and is 646 lines long. There are poetic and prose translations of the poem in English; both note the line numbers of the original poem. Le Lai de Lanval is a story about courtly love and King Arthur’s methods of governance.

The first four lines of the poem introduce both the main character and the narrator of the poem. The narrator—the first-person “I” (Line 2)—appears before the knight is named. A narrator who intrudes in the action of the poem is a literary device used in most Arthurian—or chivalric—romances. The “story” (Line 1) of “Lanval” (Line 4) is recited, not invented, by the narrator.

Lines 5-10 describe the initial setting of the poem: King Arthur’s court. Arthur and his knights are at “Carlisle” (Line 5), which is located in “Logres” (Line 9). Logres a frequently used term in medieval romances to refer to England. Arthur, his knights, and the rest of his household are at this well-fortified location because the Scots and Picts have been perpetuating violent attacks in Logres.

Lines 11-20 are a description of King Arthur’s feast at Pentecost. This summer celebration is an example of a common trope (or feature) in Arthurian literature. The action of many chivalric romances begins during a lavish feast. In this specific occasion, the conflict in the poem begins with Arthur giving “gifts” (Line 13), including “wives and lands” (Line 17), to everyone except Lanval.

In Lines 21-38, the narrator describes Lanval’s character and situation. He is envied for his “beauty” (Line 22), as well as his “generosity” and “valor” (Line 21). The device of cataloging external and internal qualities is another common feature in medieval romance. While Lanval possesses these enviable qualities, he lacks money. This develops the conflict: Arthur overlooked Lanval when giving out gifts and Lanval does not feel comfortable asking Arthur for money. Part of Lanval’s hesitation is due to being a “stranger” (Line 37). Logres is “another land” (Line 37), far from Lanval’s homeland.

Lines 39-52 describe a day when Lanval goes for a horseback ride. He leaves the “town” (Line 43) and the scene changes to a green, or undeveloped, space. In the Arthurian romance genre, damsels often approach knights when they arrive near a body of running water such as a “stream” (Line 45) or spring. Lanval lies on the grass near this water, using his “cloak” (Line 49) as a pillow. In this section, the mental state of Lanval’s horse reflects Lanval’s own mental state—the horse “tremble[s]” (Line 46). However, while the horse can find relief by rolling around in the field, there is “nothing” (Line 52) that can make Lanval feel at ease.

In Lines 53-68, two beautiful, well-dressed damsels approach Lanval. The descriptions of lovely clothes and bodies are intertwined—their “purple” (Line 59) clothes are highlighted, as well as their “faces” (Line 60). One damsel carries “gold” (Line 63) bowls and the other carries a towel. The richness of their looks and clothing extends to the everyday objects they use (e.g. bowls used to wash).

Lines 69-92 begin with the young women greeting Lanval and giving him a message. Their damsel—the unmarried woman they serve—sent them to fetch Lanval and bring him to her tent. The narrator notes that Lanval’s horse is left behind “grazing” (Line 79) while Lanval is led to a lavish tent. In the description of the tent, the narrator uses allusions to indicate how expensive it is. The tent is so costly that mythical figures like “Semiramis” (Line 82)—the queen who supposedly built Babylon—could not afford even part of it.

In Lines 93-106, the narrator describes the damsel in the tent: She is more beautiful than flowers, specifically the “lily” and the “new rose” (Line 94). As with her servants, her clothing is described alongside her body. The damsel’s bedspread is also described; this spread and her “mantle” (Line 101) are both very expensive. All the items complement her fair skin, which is partially revealed. The color motif in this section includes white and red.

Lines 107-16 show Lanval approaching the damsel’s bed where she professes her love for him. They both have left their homes; she tells Lanval she is far from her “country” (Line 112). At the end of the poem, it is revealed that the damsel’s home is Avalon. She also asserts that Lanval must be “courtly” (Line 113). Courtly behavior, specifically courtly love, is a central theme of the poem.

In Lines 117-30, Lanval responds to her declaration of love. Before he speaks, the poet uses a fire metaphor: When looking at the damsel’s beauty, Love’s “spark” (Line 118) sets Lanval’s “heart” (Line 119) on fire. He swears he will do anything she asks and wishes to always be with her. The intensity of desire and the willingness to complete any task are qualities of courtly, or chivalric, love. Lanval develops this theme by swearing to behave in accordance with chivalric codes.

Lines 131-42 are the damsel’s reply to Lanval’s adoration and willingness to serve her. She gives him “her love and her body” (Line 133) in return. The narrator interjects, saying Lanval is on the “right path” (Line 134). In addition to the emotional and physical gifts she gives Lanval, the damsel also provides monetary gifts. She ensures that Lanval is financially supported; she provides funds for anything he desires—including any generous gifts he wishes to give others.

In Lines 143-52, the damsel places one condition on her relationship with Lanval: He must never tell anyone their “secret” (Line 145). If their “love were to become known” (Line 147), she would never meet with him again. Lanval agrees to this condition. Secret affairs are part of the courtly love tradition. This secrecy develops the overall theme about love and results in a new conflict. The device of the magical rule about secrecy also reflects many fairy stories.

Lines 153-88 describe the rest of their day together: They remain in bed until the evening. Before dinner, Lanval’s beloved damsel tells him he must leave after the meal, but she will come to him at his request in the future. She reminds him that no one else may “see” or “hear” her (Line 169). Her servants return to give Lanval “rich garments” (Line 174), as well as water and a towel to wash and dry his hands. They serve him a lavish supper—another example of the feast motif in Arthurian romance—during which Lanval frequently kisses his beloved.

In Lines 189-200, the narrator describes Lanval leaving his beloved. Her servants saddle his horse for him, and he rides back to the “city” (Line 194). His transition from the meadow to Carlisle develops the theme surrounding the two kinds of spaces: green (undeveloped, natural) space and urban (developed, city) space. During his journey, Lanval begins to doubt the encounter with his damsel was real: “[H]e could not believe it was true” (Line 200).

Lines 201-18 show Lanval returning to the city and interacting with the people there. Clothing is again referenced, with “his men finely dressed” (Line 202) when he arrives, presumably taken care of by the same girls who gave Lanval his new clothes. He is very generous; his beloved’s fund is spent on bailing out prisoners and buying clothes for jesters, as well as giving gifts to knights. While he keeps the secret of where his money originates, Lanval’s beloved visits him “often and she was entirely at his command” (Lines 217-18). He adheres to the codes of chivalry—or courtly love—by keeping his damsel’s existence a secret. Also, her instant appearance at his command indicates that she is a fairy of some kind.

In Lines 219-36, the narrator focuses on a particular day shortly after Saint John’s day (Midsummer Day). A group of 30 knights gather in a garden near Queen Guinevere’s tower. Two of these knights are named: “Gawain” and “his cousin, the fair Ywain” (Lines 225-26). Marie de France includes the names of familiar knights from Arthurian romances by Geoffrey of Monmouth and Chretien de Troyes alongside her new knight Lanval to establish him as part of the canon. Gawain realizes they have not invited Lanval to the garden and rallies the knights to fetch him.

Lines 237-52 describe Guinevere’s reaction to the knights gathering outside her window. After recognizing Lanval, she has her servants gather the “most elegant and beautiful damsels to relax with her in the garden” (Lines 244-45). To match the 30 knights, “more than thirty” (Line 247) damsels enter the garden. The knights are generally happy to socialize with the damsels.

However, in Lines 253-74, Lanval withdraws from the others. He misses his own beloved, whom he cannot see in front of anyone else. The queen, with no knowledge of Lanval’s secret, simply sees him as “alone” (Lines 259). She approaches him and tries to begin a secret affair with him: “I grant you my love” (Line 267). If Lanval was not already in a secret affair, this would be another example of courtly love, but it is complicated by Lanval’s loyalty to his secret damsel. He rejects the queen’s advances, citing his loyalty to Arthur rather than reveal his secret affair.

Lines 275-286 illustrate the queen’s response to Lanval’s rejection, which was based on his loyalty to a man, King Arthur, and the queen turns this reason into a homophobic rant. She accuses Lanval of having “no desire for women” (Line 280), instead preferring romance with “well-trained young men” (Line 281). Guinevere insists this behavior has corrupted Arthur: A homosexual knight serving King Arthur would cause him to be rejected by God and heaven.

In Lines 287-310, Lanval responds to the accusation that he will corrupt Arthur’s soul. The narrator foreshadows how Lanval will frequently “regret” (Line 290) his words spoken in anger: He tells Guinevere about his secret affair with the damsel. Lanval not only breaks his promise, but insults the queen. He says the “poorest girl” (Line 299) who serves his damsel is better than Guinevere in both looks and character. Humiliated, Queen Guinevere storms off to bed.

Lines 311-24 show King Arthur coming back from the woods. Again, the woods are featured, developing the theme about green spaces. On this occasion, the forest is a place where the king is “extremely happy” (Line 312). In this happy state, Arthur encounters Guinevere. She lies to him, claiming Lanval tried to initiate a secret affair with her. Omitting her homophobic rant, Guinevere alleges that Lanval humiliated her because she refused his offer of courtly love. However, Lanval’s rash insult—that his beloved’s “poorest servant” (Line 322) was better than Guinevere—is faithfully repeated amongst the queen’s lies. This emphasizes not only Lanval’s betrayal of the damsel, but also that his insult stings since it is about class. He essentially calls Guinevere lower than a common servant girl, which challenges the authority of the system of monarchy.

In Lines 325-31, Arthur responds to Guinevere’s mostly false claims. While he is “very angry” (Line 325) and wants Lanval to be sentenced with a death penalty, Arthur says Lanval must “defend himself in court” (Line 327). Despite being a king within a monarchy, Arthur believes in the importance of a democratic legal process with multiple judges coming to a decision. He sends three barons to fetch Lanval.

Lines 332-51 describe Lanval as heartsick over losing his damsel. Since he broke his promise and revealed their secret love affair, his beloved does not appear when he calls out to her. Lanval’s emotional outbursts—including “fainting” (Line 342), crying, cursing, and suicidal thoughts—develop the theme of courtly love. Anguish over separation from a beloved appears in many chivalric romances. No matter how Lanval expresses his pain and regret, his damsel does not “permit him to see her” (Line 350). The narrator interjects, wondering what Lanval will do. This interjection develops the literary device of the intrusive narrator.

In Lines 352-70, Arthur’s barons bring Lanval to court. Lanval’s sadness grows and he wishes for the death penalty. Arthur tells Lanval the charges against him: “[S]ham[ing]” (Line 365) Arthur and “slander[ing]” (Line 366) Guinevere. King Arthur does not believe Lanval’s beloved’s handmaiden is “more beautiful and more worthy than the queen” (Lines 369-70). Again, this emphasizes the idea that the insult is based in class: Rather than Lanval’s beloved outshining Guinevere, it is the damsel’s servant compared to royalty.

In Lines 371-99, Lanval denies the queen’s claim that he asked her to have an affair with him. Lanval’s version of events is supported by the narrator’s account of the action earlier in the poem. He does not deny that he told Guinevere his beloved’s servant was better than her. Lanval further admits that revealing his secret love cost him the relationship: “[H]e had lost her” (Line 378). Depressed, Lanval agrees to do “whatever the court decreed” (Line 380). Lanval submits to the consequences of his actions, taking responsibility for his part in the conflict.

King Arthur, rather than independently acting as a monarch, commands guidance from others. His knights assemble “to make a judgment” (Line 388), and decide to hold a full trial at a later date. Not everyone is present, the knights argue, and everyone’s opinion should be taken into consideration. This approach develops the theme of the importance of a democratic legal process.

Lines 400-14 show other knights looking out for Lanval. Gawain offers bail and other knights follow his lead. King Arthur makes them pledge to ensure that Lanval returns to court at the appointed time. The knights escort Lanval back to his lodging and discourage his courtly love laments: They “cursed such foolish love” (Line 410). Each day, they visit Lanval, making sure he is eating, drinking, and not harming himself. This section shows the tension between male-male bonds of knightly friendships and female-male bonds of courtly love that appears in many Arthurian romances.

In Lines 415-432, the full court assembles for trial. At least 100 people want the trial to be dismissed because they believe Lanval was “wrongly accused” (Line 423). Arthur demands a verdict, but “everything lay in the hands of the barons” (Line 426); this develops the theme of Arthur insisting upon a democratic legal process. The judges deliberate and are divided. Some feel sad for the “knight from abroad” (Line 429), but others want to see him harmed.

Lines 433-71 include the judges’ decision. The Count of Cornwall declares “right must prevail” (Line 436), and repeats the accusations. He decrees that if Lanval can provide proof of his beloved’s beauty, he will be pardoned. If he cannot, he will be removed from Arthur’s service and banished. This is a gentler sentence than the death sentence originally wished for Lanval, developing the theme about the legal system. The judges send messengers to tell Lanval about this development. Since he betrayed their secret, he believes his beloved will not “defend and protect him” (Line 464). The messengers return to the judges and relay Lanval’s response. Arthur is impatient for the verdict as Guinevere is pressuring him.

In Lines 472-98, the judges are about to give their verdict, but they delay because two maidens approach. The maidens—and their clothes and horses—are beautiful, causing the knights to wonder if one of the maidens is Lanval’s beloved; the motif of clothing and color is developed here. Gawain and three knights go to Lanval and ask him to look at the maidens; however, Lanval “did not know who they were, whence they came or where they were going” (Lines 483-84). The maidens reach Arthur and ask him to prepare a room for their lady who wishes to visit. Arthur assigns two knights to help the maidens.

Lines 499-508 again show how Arthur is impatient for a verdict. The repetition of his asking “for the judgment” (Line 500) emphasizes how he continues to adhere to the democratic legal process even when he is “angered” by the “delay” (Lines 501-02). The judges tell Arthur they have not come to a decision due to the arrival of the maidens. They want to continue to reassemble and discuss the latest information, causing dissension amongst them.

In Lines 509-32, two additional “very comely and beautiful” (Line 522) maidens arrive on mules. Yvain hopes one of them is Lanval’s beloved, but Lanval, despairing, tells Yvain that neither is the damsel he loves. The people of Carlisle admire the beauty of these maidens: “[T]hey were both more worthy than the queen had ever been” (Lines 531-32).

Lines 533-46 describe the interactions of these maidens with King Arthur. They ask for lodging for their lady; Arthur orders his knights to put them with the two damsels who earlier arrived. He summons his barons and again demands their verdict. The doubling of maidens reflects how Arthur’s demands for a verdict have been repeated in the poem. Guinevere “was getting angry” (Line 545) and pressuring Arthur for resolution. However, her pressure does not cause him to forgo the democratic process.

In Lines 547-84, an exceedingly beautiful lady enters the town. She is described at length; the extensive catalog of her features is a literary device called a blazon. Everyone, including the narrator, agrees “[t]here was none more beautiful in the whole world” (Lines 549-50). In addition to her physical features, her horse and clothing are described. A sparrowhawk and dog accompany the damsel.

In Lines 585-600, Lanval’s friends tell him about the damsel’s arrival. He knows from their descriptions that she is his beloved. Furthermore, Lanval only cares about regaining her favor. The judges’ verdict—even if it is a death sentence—no longer matters to him. His prioritization of her love over all else develops the theme of courtly love.

Lines 601-29 show the damsel speaking with King Arthur and his court. She dismounts her horse and takes off her cloak. Arthur and the others praise her beauty and ask to become “her servants” (Line 610). She confirms she loves Lanval and asks for him to be acquitted. Arthur, again, defers to the judges. They decide Lanval should be freed, based on the damsel’s beauty and testimony.

In Lines 630-46, the damsel leaves Arthur’s court. Lanval climbs on a “large block of dark marble” (Line 634). This is, the narrator asserts, usually used by heavily armed men to assist them in mounting their horses. When his beloved rides her horse below this marble block, Lanval jumps on the horse behind her. The narrator, quoting “the Bretons” (Line 642), says Lanval’s damsel took him to the island of Avalon. This location is significant in many Arthurian stories for being a magical place run by women. This happy ending for the couple cements the theme of courtly love.