Gulag: A History

Chapter 20 details the narratives of “strangers” within the Soviet prison camp system, contrasting the experiences of early foreign prisoners with those brought in en masse following the Soviet invasions of Eastern Europe. Initially, foreign prisoners were mostly Western communists and Comintern members, assimilating somewhat into the camp’s social fabric despite their distinct backgrounds.

However, the annexation of eastern Poland, the Baltic states, and parts of Romania introduced a new wave of “strangers” to the Gulag—Poles, Balts, Ukrainians, and others—whose sudden displacement and lack of understanding of their situation set them apart markedly from previous foreign inmates. Applebaum documents the arbitrary and widespread arrests carried out for both “security” and Sovietization purposes, targeting anyone potentially opposed to Soviet rule and employing mass deportations as a tool of repression and demographic engineering.

The chapter also explores the large-scale, systematic deportations and their impacts on the demographics and social structures of the affected regions. It highlights the immense suffering of the deportees, many of whom were unprepared for the harsh conditions of exile in remote areas of the Soviet Union. Hunger was so pervasive that people resorted to eating nettles, leading to severe swelling and death. The mandatory attendance at a Russian school, under the threat of withheld bread, and the enforced denial of the Polish people’s Catholic faith illustrate the Soviet Union’s attempts at cultural erasure. Applebaum links these events to Stalin’s broader strategy of erasing certain national identities and repopulating the Soviet Union’s northern and eastern regions, effectively using mass deportations as a tool for both punitive and strategic purposes.

Lastly, the chapter underscores the transformation of the Gulag system during the war, with a significant influx of foreign prisoners of war and the introduction of katorga camps for war criminals and other selected groups. These developments marked a shift toward a more systematic use of forced labor for industrial and military projects, further blurring the lines between political prisoners, prisoners of war, and actual war criminals.

Chapter 21 explores the dynamics of amnesty and its aftermath within the Soviet Gulag system, alongside the experiences of political and non-political prisoners during and after World War II. The chapter opens with the paradox of the Soviet repressive system, characterized by its capacity for both relentless punishment and unexpected amnesties. Amidst the catastrophic toll of the war, the Soviet state granted amnesties, releasing nearly a million prisoners to bolster military ranks or due to labor shortages, while explicitly excluding recidivists and political prisoners. This mass release, however, did not signify an end to suffering, as those remaining faced harsher conditions, and those released into the Red Army often found themselves in perilous frontline roles.

The chapter also details the wartime transformation of prisoners’ identities. Despite the brutality of their imprisonment, many of those amnestied exhibited patriotism, willingly fighting for the Soviet cause upon their release. This sense of duty was mirrored within the camps, where prisoners still expressed a strong desire to contribute to the Soviet victory. Applebaum presents a nuanced portrayal of the prisoners’ complex relationships with their identities as Soviet citizens, illustrating how the extremities of war blurred the lines between loyalty and oppression.

The broader implications of amnesties and the reintegration of prisoners into Soviet society are examined, revealing the systemic and ideological shifts that occurred as a result of the war. The narrative highlights the irony of the Soviet state utilizing the very individuals it had deemed enemies to further its war efforts, underscoring the malleability of political and social identities under extreme circumstances.

Chapter 22 covers the transition of the Soviet Gulag system into its most expansive and economically focused phase post-World War II. This era witnessed a burgeoning hope among the Soviet populace for a more lenient, post-war existence, reflecting widespread desires for improved living conditions and a shift toward consumer goods production.

However, the onset of the Cold War and Stalin’s insistence on prioritizing military and industrial output over consumer needs thwarted these expectations. Despite initial post-war amnesties and a brief easing of restrictions for prisoners, the Gulag’s role in the Soviet economy was soon reinforced, driven by forced labor and marked by extensive new projects designed to expand the Soviet industrial base at the cost of countless prisoners’ lives.

The Gulag expanded through new arrests targeting various groups, including ethnic minorities, returning to the harsh repression akin to the late 1930s. The introduction of “special camps” for political prisoners and the ongoing struggle against “anti-Soviet elements” underscored the regime’s tightening grip on power. This period also saw the peculiar phenomenon of re-arrests, where former prisoners were once again ensnared by the Soviet penal system. Amidst these developments, the Gulag’s sprawling infrastructure and the Soviet state’s relentless push for economic self-sufficiency through forced labor reached their apogee, reflecting a disturbing zenith in the intertwining of state repression and economic ambition.

In the tumultuous post-war era, the Gulag witnessed an unprecedented assertiveness from political prisoners, transforming the camp dynamics significantly. This new wave of prisoners was markedly different from its predecessors. Their presence was felt strongly in instances where they banded together, forming groups like the “red hats” to resist the dominance of criminal factions and, by extension, challenge the camp authorities themselves. This phenomenon was not isolated but manifested across the camp system, indicating a collective awakening among the political prisoners to their potential for resistance. Such actions not only tested the administration’s control over the camp populace but also highlighted the evolving nature of the inmate community, which was increasingly unwilling to accept the status quo of oppression and exploitation.

The chapter concludes by highlighting the paradoxes and inefficiencies of the camp system, revealing cracks in the façade of the Gulag’s economic utility. Despite the authorities’ efforts to maximize productivity and suppress dissent, strikes and unrest within the camps grew, challenging the sustainability of forced labor as a foundation for Soviet industrialization. The death of Stalin in 1953 marked a critical juncture, abruptly halting the momentum of the camp-industrial complex and opening the door to subsequent reforms.

Chapter 23 navigates the impact of Stalin’s demise on the psyche of the Soviet populace, particularly the prisoners and exiles within the Gulag system. Despite their cautious optimism, the announcement of Stalin’s death elicited a range of reactions, from subdued hope to overt jubilation, reflecting a deep-seated desire for an end to the oppressive system that had dictated their lives. The narrative captures the cautious atmosphere within the camps, where expressions of joy were tempered by the fear of further reprisals.

The subsequent swift actions by Beria to reform the Gulag system underscore the immediate aftermath of Stalin’s death. Beria’s rapid dismantling of major Gulag projects and his proposals for mass amnesties suggested a potential shift toward a more humane approach to the Soviet penal system. However, the motives behind Beria’s reforms remain a subject of speculation, ranging from a genuine desire for economic efficiency to a strategic consolidation of power.

The narrative details the confusion and uncertainty that permeated the ranks of the camp administrators and the Soviet leadership alike, reflecting the precarious balance of power in the wake of Stalin’s death. This section highlights the complex interplay between political maneuvering and the administration of the Gulag system, illustrating the challenges of transitioning from a system built on repression and forced labor.

The chapter concludes by examining the nuanced and varied responses to the announced reforms, revealing the deep-seated cynicism and divisions within the camp population. While some prisoners and guards adapted quickly to the changing political climate, embracing a more humane approach to incarceration, others remained trapped in a system that continued to prioritize punishment over rehabilitation.

The narrative captures the lingering effects of Stalin’s policies on the camp system and the Soviet Union at large, portraying a society grappling with the legacy of a tyrannical leader and the uncertain path toward reform. This chapter not only sheds light on the immediate aftermath of Stalin’s death but also sets the stage for the gradual dismantling of the Gulag system, marking the end of an era defined by fear, suffering, and the relentless pursuit of ideological conformity.