Gulag: A History

Chapter 14 explores the experiences of the prisoners within the Soviet Union’s infamous labor camps. This chapter examines the dichotomy between the political prisoners and the urki (professional criminals), portraying a complex social hierarchy and culture within the Gulag system. Applebaum describes the initial shock and terror faced by newcomers as they encountered the brutal world of the urki, whose predatory behavior and disdain for the “enemies of the people” underscored the lawlessness and savagery that pervaded the camps. The camp society mirrored the external Soviet society in its complexity and stratification, with its own rules, hierarchies, and social norms. The urki, atop this hierarchy, commanded a peculiar respect and fear, living by a code that vehemently rejected Soviet authority while exploiting the system for their own gain.

One example of the dynamics between the political prisoners and the urki comes from the experience of Alexander Gorbatov, a Soviet war hero. Upon crossing the Sea of Okhotsk, Gorbatov was robbed of his boots by urki, who justified their theft with a mocking accusation of him having sold the boots and refusing to hand them over. This incident not only underscores the lawlessness and predatory behavior of the urki but also highlights the brutal reality newcomers faced: a world where even a respected war hero could be reduced to a victim of camp thuggery.

The chapter further examines the intricate social fabric of the Gulag, highlighting the diverse backgrounds of its inmates, from political dissidents to common criminals, and from various ethnic and social strata of Soviet society. Applebaum’s narrative reveals how the camps became melting pots of cultural and ideological diversity, albeit under the harsh conditions of forced labor and constant surveillance. She documents the internal divisions and alliances among prisoners, showing how ethnic, national, and ideological affiliations could both divide and unite. She offers insights into how prisoners navigated the treacherous camp politics, sought protection, and sometimes found solidarity in shared identities or beliefs.

Lastly, Applebaum details the personal stories and survival strategies of the prisoners, shedding light on the human aspect of the Gulag experience. Through accounts of individual resilience, adaptability, and resistance, she illustrates the varied ways in which prisoners coped with the dehumanizing conditions of the camps. The narrative emphasizes the role of personal agency within the constraints of the camp system, exploring how inmates sought to preserve their dignity, identity, and humanity against overwhelming odds.

Applebaum explores the distinctive experiences of female prisoners and children within the Gulag system. Despite the commonality of suffering shared with male prisoners, women’s experiences in the camps were marked by unique challenges and instances of resilience. Women prisoners often displayed remarkable ingenuity and solidarity, forming close-knit groups for mutual support and survival. They managed to maintain some aspects of personal hygiene and crafted clothing under dire circumstances, showcasing their resilience and resourcefulness. However, the chapter also details the darker aspects of camp life for women, including exploitation and sexual violence. The narrative contrasts the experiences of women who had sexual relationships to secure better conditions with stories of genuine relationships formed as survival strategies.

The chapter also sheds light on the plight of children in the Gulag system, including those born in camps or arrested with their mothers. The existence of nurseries and maternity camps within the Gulag underscores the system’s pervasiveness and the extent of its impact on the most vulnerable. These children, whether born in captivity or brought into the camps at a young age, faced harsh conditions, neglect, and the trauma of separation from their parents. Their stories highlight the broader societal consequences of the Gulag, extending the system’s reach into the next generation and disrupting the natural bond between parent and child.

Further, the narrative exposes the systemic nature of abuse and exploitation within the Gulag, where both women and children were often seen as commodities by guards and fellow prisoners alike. The chapter provides an exploration of the human capacity for both cruelty and compassion under extreme conditions. It reveals how the Gulag system exploited gender and age vulnerabilities, contributing to the lasting trauma experienced by survivors.

Chapter 16 highlights the realities of life and death within the Soviet camp system. Applebaum describes the physical and psychological tolls of exhaustion, hunger, and the process of dying as experienced by the prisoners, with the most desperately ill and weak referred to as dokhodyagi, or “goners.” Applebaum documents the stages of decline among these prisoners, from initial symptoms of vitamin deficiency and starvation to grotesque physical transformations in the final stages of starvation. She paints a picture of the camps’ social hierarchy, where the dying occupied the lowest rung, and the slang and attitudes developed by both prisoners and guards to describe those who were ill and dying.

Prisoners suffered from scurvy, pellagra, and other diseases due to malnutrition, experienced severe swelling, and ultimately became unrecognizable, with some engaging in acts of desperation for food. The narrative also touches on the psychological effects, with prisoners sometimes developing mental health conditions. The term dokhodyagi itself is explored for its sarcastic undertone, suggesting that these individuals were reaching not socialism, as the official rhetoric claimed, but the end of their lives in the most dehumanizing conditions imaginable.

One example of the dokhodyagi’s fate is the account of Thomas Sgovio, who witnessed firsthand the effects of starvation and disease. Sgovio describes waking up one morning to find his leg grotesquely swollen and discolored. The swelling turned into large, oozing boils, a manifestation of the severe vitamin deficiencies that plagued the prisoners.

The chapter also details the systemic nature of death in the Gulag, highlighting how deaths were hidden or falsified in official records to maintain secrecy and avoid repercussions from higher authorities. Applebaum uncovers the cruel indifference to human life, with camp administrations concerned more with concealing the true death tolls than with addressing the underlying causes of mortality.

Chapter 17 explores the varied and complex strategies that prisoners employed to survive the harsh realities of the Gulag system. Despite the conditions, many prisoners managed to not only survive but also maintain a semblance of psychological resilience. Applebaum shares stories of remarkable individuals who, upon release, managed to reintegrate into society, achieving personal and professional success. Their survival strategies were diverse, from maintaining their physical and mental health to forming supportive communities within the camps.

Applebaum details the realities of survival, acknowledging that not all stories ended with triumph. Many survivors bore the scars of compromise and moral ambiguity, as the need to survive often forced prisoners into roles that conflicted with their ethical beliefs. The chapter critically examines the memoirs of survivors, acknowledging their contributions to our understanding of the Gulag while also noting their limitations. Memoirs often focus on individual survival stories, potentially overshadowing the experiences of those who didn’t live to tell their tales, including informers and those who compromised others’ safety for their survival.

The chapter also addresses the communal aspects of survival, detailing how prisoners formed makeshift families, shared scarce resources, and relied on each other’s expertise to navigate the daily challenges of camp life. These bonds of solidarity and mutual aid were crucial for survival, demonstrating the importance of community and human connection.

Chapter 18 explores the themes of rebellion and escape within the Soviet camp system, challenging the myth that escape was impossible and highlighting the incredible risks and efforts undertaken by prisoners who dared to flee. Applebaum opens with narratives of individual and group escape attempts, illustrating the daunting challenges faced by those seeking freedom, from the harsh geographical and climatic conditions to the relentless surveillance and brutality of camp guards.

One of the most audacious escape attempts from the Gulag was made by Slavomir Rawicz, whose story is chronicled in his memoir The Long Walk. Rawicz, along with six other prisoners, managed a daring escape from a Siberian camp during the harsh winter of 1941. Despite the challenges posed by the vast and treacherous Siberian wilderness, relentless pursuit by Soviet authorities, and the constant battle against starvation, exposure, and exhaustion, Rawicz and his companions embarked on an epic journey. Their path took them through the Gobi Desert, over the Himalayas, and finally to freedom in India.

Despite the formidable obstacles, including vast distances, severe weather, and a system designed to prevent escape at all costs, prisoners continued to risk everything for a chance at freedom. The chapter details how the camps’ isolation in remote areas, surrounded by natural barriers like the freezing tundra or dense forests, contributed to the perception that escape was futile. There were severe punishments meted out to those caught, ranging from execution to brutal beatings. Applebaum paints a picture of a system intent on crushing the human spirit yet unable to extinguish the desire for freedom and resistance against inhumane conditions.

The narrative shifts to the communal aspect of rebellion, examining how collective actions, whether successful or not, served as a form of resistance against the dehumanizing regime of the Gulag. Applebaum explores how the very act of planning and dreaming of escape provided prisoners with a sense of agency and solidarity in contrast to the isolation and despair that the camps sought to instill. She concludes with an analysis of the broader implications of these acts of defiance, suggesting that while the majority of escape attempts may have ended in failure or recapture, they nonetheless represented a challenge to the Soviet system’s authority and revealed a human spirit that refused to be completely subdued.