Determined: A Science of Life without Free Will

Determined is based on the philosophical concept of determinism, also referred to as causal determinism or causality, and its ramifications for free will, society, and social ethics. Determinism holds that every event that occurs is driven by preceding circumstances—every effect is caused. Indeterminism, in contrast, states that not all events are affected by antecedent conditions—or some effects are causeless. While the concept of determinism first emerged in ancient Greece, it reached mathematical maturity in the 1700s (“Causal Determinism.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2003). Despite its long history, no consensus has been reached as to whether the universe is deterministic, particularly in regard to human behavior. As Sapolsky notes throughout Determined, determinism is incompatible with free will, and humans experience an inherent sense of free will. These facts make it more challenging for people to accept the concept of determinism as it relates to human behavior.

Numerous scientists have made cases both for and against causal determinism. Sapolsky notes several modern scientists who represent diverse thinking on the topic. Other prominent supporters of determinism include Max Planck, who was a founder of the quantum theory discussed in Chapters 9 and 10, and Albert Einstein, the well-known theoretical physicist who established the theories of general and special relativity as well as contributing to quantum mechanics. In his 1913 text Where Is Science Going?, Planck incorporates the concept of reality into his examination of determinism and free will. He suggests that humans do not have direct access to external reality; rather, they can only perceive the natural world as their senses allow. This adds another layer to the case for determinism. In a conversation between Planck, Einstein, and science translator James Murphy cited at the end of the text, Einstein complements Planck’s position, taking a similar stance as Sapolsky. Einstein agrees that he has a sense of willing various behaviors but expresses that his sense of willing likely arises from unseen causes. He says of indeterminism, “That nonsense is not merely nonsense. It is objectionable nonsense” (Planck, Max. Where Is Science Going? 1913, p. 201). The concept of determinism arises across multiple disciplines. Both Einstein and Planck offer a physical sciences perspective. Sapolsky also includes Neil Levy, a social and ethical philosopher; Peter Tse, a fellow neuroscientist; Daniel Dennett, a science philosopher; and Christian List, a political scientist. By including an assortment of opinions from various academic professions, Sapolsky demonstrates the interdisciplinary nature of determinism.

Sapolsky takes a similar stance as Planck and Einstein in that he views determinism and free will as inextricably linked. The purpose of Chapters 1 through 10 is to demonstrate that the universe is deterministic and, subsequently, that free will and determinism are incompatible. He does this first by arguing that determinism must be studied from a variety of perspectives and across a broad time scape; when this approach is taken, determinism leaves “no room” for free will. After establishing this context, he moves to counterarguing against three areas often cited as supporting indeterminism—chaoticism, emergent complexity, and quantum mechanics. Determinism also plays a central role in the final chapters, which explore the social significance of causal determinism.