Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes

During the period of 1737-1918 CE, alongside political upheaval, the Muslim world witnessed intellectual and spiritual reform movements. These movements arose as a response to the bureaucratization of Islam, mirroring the discontent that spurred the Protestant Reformation in Christianity. Muslim religious institutions had become rigid, with the Ulama’s power solidified, Sufi orders institutionalized, and the notion that all religious issues had been conclusively resolved, leaving no room for ijtihad, or independent creative reasoning based on Islamic texts.

This stagnation in religious thought and the overwhelming presence of Europeans, who largely dismissed or ignored Islamic traditions, led to introspection and a call for reform within the Muslim world. Reform movements varied in their approach: Some argued for a return to the pure, unadulterated practices of early Islam, rejecting Western influence; others believed in embracing Western thought and modernizing Islam to align with contemporary scientific and ethical standards; and a third group advocated for a synthesis of Islamic traditions with selective Western advancements, especially in science and technology.

Key figures like Abdul Wahhab, Sayyid Ahmad of Aligarh, and Sayyid Jamaluddin-i-Afghan epitomized these diverse reformist ideologies. Their efforts and those of other reformers marked a pivotal period in Islamic history, grappling with the challenges of modernity and the influence of Western imperialism while striving to rejuvenate Islamic thought and practice.

Wahhabism

Abdul Wahhab was born around 1703 in the Nejd region of Arabia. Disturbed by the religious diversity and perceived dilution of Islam he witnessed in Basra, Wahhab advocated for a return to the unadulterated form of Islam practiced by the original Muslim community in Medina. His doctrine emphasized the absolute unity of God and condemned any form of reverence toward other entities as idolatry.

Wahhab’s alliance with the ambitious local ruler Mohammed ibn Saud proved pivotal. The duo made a pact, with Wahhab endorsing Ibn Saud’s political leadership and Ibn Saud committing to implement Wahhab’s religious vision. This alliance eventually united the Bedouin tribes of the Arabian Peninsula under Saudi-Wahhabi rule. The movement aggressively expanded, demanding tribes to convert to Wahhab’s interpretation of Islam or face death, labeling them as infidels if they refused.

Despite the assassination of Ibn Saud and Wahhab’s death in 1792, their legacy persisted. Wahhabism, though not explicitly defined by Wahhab himself, evolved into a strict interpretation of Islamic law, viewing the original Muslim community in Medina as the ideal model for all Muslim societies. The doctrine placed jihad as a central religious duty and categorized anyone deviating from its strict interpretation as enemies, including innovators, hypocrites, and apostates. Wahhabism’s influence extended beyond Arabia, notably impacting Islamic reform movements in India. Though seemingly a historical anomaly, the Saudi-Wahhabi alliance’s influence continued to smolder, re-emerging significantly in the 20th century.

The Aligarh Movement: Secular Modernism

Sayyid Ahmad, also known as Sir Sayyid Ahmad of Aligarh, emerged as a key figure in the 19th-century Muslim world, advocating for the harmonization of Islamic principles with the secular modernity shaped by European dominance. Born in 1817 in Delhi into a distinguished family aligned with the Moghuls and later the British, Sayyid Ahmad’s upbringing infused him with a blend of Muslim devotion and an appreciation for Western culture and governance.

Despite financial hardships and a self-taught education, Sayyid Ahmad’s commitment to learning and modern ideas never waned. He worked for the East India Company, but his life took a decisive turn after the Indian Mutiny of 1857. His writings during this period aimed to correct British misconceptions about Indian Muslims, emphasizing their loyalty and arguing against jihad against the British.

Sayyid Ahmad’s visit to England deepened his admiration for Western advancements but also revealed to him the disparaging views of Islam that many Britishers held, prompting him to write in defense of Prophet Mohammed. This experience solidified his determination to modernize the Muslim community in India. He believed that outdated interpretations of Islam and magical thinking led to the backwardness of some Muslims. Proposing a rational, ethical Islam compatible with science and secular thought, he argued that Islam’s fundamental principles aligned with those of other great religions but emphasized rationality and moral reasoning.

To propagate his modernist vision, Sayyid Ahmad founded the Scientific Society and, later, Aligarh University, focusing on a curriculum that blended traditional Islamic studies with modern sciences. His efforts laid the groundwork for secular movements, notably contributing to the formation of Pakistan.

Sayyid Ahmad’s modernist approach resonated across the Muslim world, from Iran’s Dar al-Funun to the Ottoman Empire’s Tanzimat reforms, fostering a wave of modernist intellectuals seeking to reshape their societies along European lines while staying true to their Islamic heritage.

Islamist Modernism

Sayyid Jamaluddin-i-Afghan, a prominent 19th-century Muslim reformer, is widely known for his relentless advocacy for modernizing Islam. He was born in either Afghanistan or Iran—his birthplace is disputed—but his journey began in India, where he developed a disdain for British colonialism and European imperialism.

Throughout his life, Jamaluddin traveled extensively, including to Afghanistan, Asia Minor, Egypt, Paris, and possibly the United States. His teachings emphasized the need for Muslims to embrace modern science while staying true to Islamic values and traditions, advocating for an Islamic form of modernization. He argued against oppression by clerical establishments and promoted the freedom to interpret the Qur’an individually, which often led to conflicts with Muslim governments and clerical authorities.

In Egypt, he criticized the ruling class’s corruption and called for a more modest lifestyle for leaders, akin to the early Muslim community. His promotion of parliamentary democracy, based on the Islamic concepts of shura (consultative council) and ijma (consensus), positioned him as a threat to established powers, leading to his eviction from multiple countries.

Jamaluddin’s influence spread through his writings, his speeches, and the relationships he fostered with intellectuals and activists. He argued that Muslims had neglected Western science while accepting Western education and social mores. He believed that Muslims should reverse this stance for the modernization of Islamic societies.

Despite not holding official leadership roles or leaving behind a comprehensive political philosophy, Jamaluddin’s impact was notable. His teachings inspired figures like Mohammed Abduh, head of Al Azhar University in Egypt, and led to movements like the Tobacco Boycott in Iran. His modernist ideas echo through various branches of Islamic thought and continue to influence Islamic reform movements. Jamaluddin’s legacy as a fervent advocate for modernizing Islam while retaining its core values remains significant in the Muslim world.

In the 19th century, Abdul Wahhab, Sayyid Jamaluddin-i-Afghan, and Sayyid Ahmad of Aligarh represented distinct approaches to reforming the Islamic world. The era witnessed the influence of European industrialization, constitutionalism, and nationalism on Islamic lands. Industrialization introduced economic and social shifts, but the essential socio-cultural structure of Islamic societies made the integration of such changes complex. For instance, the Ottoman Empire’s attempts at modernization, called Tanzimat, intended to align society with European advancements yet faced resistance from traditional elements and dissatisfaction among the populace. Constitutionalism made strides, particularly in Iran, where a modernist movement spurred by secular education and public discontent led to the establishment of a limited constitutional monarchy. However, power dynamics fluctuated, and traditional forces often countered modernist gains.

Nationalism notably impacted the Islamic world. It fueled aspirations for nation-states, mirroring European models but adapted to local contexts. In the crumbling Ottoman Empire, nationalism exacerbated internal tensions and contributed to significant territorial losses. The rise of the Committee for Union and Progress (CUP) brought militaristic Turkish nationalism to the fore, leading to the Young Turks’ movement and significant political upheavals.

The tragedy of the Armenian Genocide marked the period, orchestrated under the guise of wartime measures by leaders of the CUP, particularly Talaat Pasha. The geopolitical manipulations of European powers, particularly Britain, further complicated the landscape, promising overlapping and conflicting sovereignties to different regional actors while secretly planning territorial divisions. By the end of World War I, the CUP had collapsed, and the Ottoman Empire was left in disarray, setting the stage for the modern Middle East’s complex political and social dynamics.

By 1919, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk emerged as a key figure in Turkey, and he led a movement that resulted in the expulsion of foreign forces and the establishment of Turkey as a secular nation-state in 1923. Atatürk implemented radical reforms, emphasizing nationalism, secularism, and cultural changes like the adoption of a new language and alphabet. He introduced a republican form of government, marginalized Islam’s role in public life, and promoted women’s rights, significantly altering the societal fabric.

Similar movements were seen in Islamic regions around the world. In Iran, after World War I, Reza Shah Pahlavi ascended to power, following a coup supported by the British. Pahlavi’s reign mirrored Atatürk’s secular modernism, focusing on development and Westernization, including dress code reforms and suppression of traditional Islamic practices. Afghanistan also witnessed similar changes under King Amanullah, who sought to modernize the country along Atatürk’s lines. However, his reforms faced backlash, and he was ousted by conservative forces supported by Britain; this led to the rise of Nadir Shah, who pursued a more cautious modernization approach.

Secular modernism spread across the Muslim world, with leaders like Mohammed Ali Jinnah in India advocating for it. However, traditional Islamic movements like Wahhabism persisted, particularly in rural areas. In India, the Deobandi movement, aligned with Wahhabi teachings, gained strength, and it also influenced the political landscape in Afghanistan. Meanwhile, European colonial powers continued to exert influence in the Middle East. The League of Nations, under European direction, established mandates, dividing the region and creating artificial states. This period saw the creation of Iraq, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, with significant British and French intervention. The question of Palestine’s future remained unresolved, with conflicting promises made to both Arab and Jewish communities. The British adopted a wait-and-see approach, leading to increased tensions in the region.

The discovery of oil in the Middle East, particularly in Iran and Iraq, became a crucial factor in international politics. Western powers secured control over these resources, reinforcing their influence in the region. During World War II, Western nations became acutely aware of the strategic importance of oil, and this led to a lasting agreement between the US and Saudi Arabia for access to oil in exchange for military support. By the outbreak of World War II, secular modernism faced increasing challenges from Islamist movements, setting the stage for a confrontation between modernist and traditionalist forces in the Muslim world.