A Little Devil in America: Notes in Praise of Black Performance

Home is a complicated idea for Abdurraqib. The common insult “go back where you came” from reminds him of his inability to blend in and his country’s rejection of him.

Josephine Baker, a Black dancer, left America in 1925 to settle in France. Abdurraqib contrasts her rejection of America with the hope Black men felt when they enlisted in the army to fight in World War I. In an effort to demonstrate their loyalty to America and earn respect, they served their country. Yet their efforts were in vain, and they were not seen as heroes in the US—though they were seen that way in France. After the war, Black artists were more warmly welcomed in France. Josephine Baker found acceptance there, which led her to serve France as if it were her country. Her performances subverted and satirized Black stereotypes and the white male gaze. Her most famous act was dancing in a skirt of plastic bananas and not much else, while surrounded by a fake jungle landscape and shirtless Black men. Her success came from playing up and mocking the racist beliefs of her audience.

Abdurraqib is most intrigued by Baker’s service as a spy for the French government. She jeopardized her life for a country she had not been born in, suggesting that France accepted her as a Black woman more than the US did. Spying used many of the same techniques as performing: Baker wrote notes with invisible ink on sheet music, pretending to prepare for a show; she pinned papers to her underwear when she crossed the borders, using her tours as an excuse and her fame as a disguise.

At a stop to perform in her hometown of St. Louis, Baker spoke out about the treatment of Black people in America. Abdurraqib includes an extensive quote from her speech. He considers what it must be like to return to your hometown as a new person.

Affirmational signs hang in Columbus, though Abdurraqib is unclear on their intended audience. Most hang undisturbed, but the one stating “Black Lives Matter” has been torn down.

This essay is tightly focused on Abdurraqib’s personal experiences with and the history of the card game spades. He plays with his peers at a poetry workshop in a van traveling through the American South, focusing on the different playing styles of himself and his partner Nate. Abdurraqib is not a good player, but relishes observing his friends and joyfully drinks in the companionship.

Spades became popular during World War II—soldiers liked that this game could be interrupted and returned to if they were attacked. The ace became a symbol of luck in Anglo-American culture because of its power in the game. Yet in regional variations of spades, sometimes the ace is actually a powerless, undesirable card. His experiences playing spades across the country show the shifting values of each card—a metaphor for the Black experience in America.

Abdurraqib and a friend walked out of the movie Green Book because they “had seen enough of the old gag about how white people and Black people are different and ain’t that just the weirdest thing” (176). His favorite thing about classical pianist Don Shirley likely wasn’t even in the movie: Shirley’s participation in a study that considered the effects of classical music on juvenile crime. While this study wasn’t successful, it inspired Shirley to return to his musical career. Abdurraqib notes that this story doesn’t make for a good movie, but he loves it because it shows a Black person walking away from a problem they didn’t create.

Abdurraqib expresses his frustration with the oft-repeated claim that America is better than hate and violence. He argues that these traits are inherently American and are only hidden by a concerted effort to sanitize history. Movies like The Help and Remember the Titans do just that—portray racism as a problem that can be easily solved with little introspection or white discomfort.

He turns to the historical publication The Negro Motorist Green Book, which served as a protection and safety guide for Black travelers in the American South. It listed places that would serve Black people, towns safe to stop at, and areas to avoid. As the book fell out of immediate need with the rise of civil rights laws, Black travelers began to subtly rely on a new, informal Green Book: Black workers and locals.

If Abdurraqib were making a movie about Shirley, he would focus tightly on Shirley’s travels and his joys. There would be no need for the white driver. The movie would show Shirley living, not struggling.

Abdurraqib found Merry Clayton’s music via the Rolling Stones album Let It Bleed and its opening song, “Gimme Shelter.” Despite her substantial contribution to the song—a song that many admired—Merry Clayton was often overlooked. Her name was only in the liner notes. Rolling Stones lead singer Mick Jagger found Clayton during the recording process; having written the line “rape, murder,” he realized that he needed a singer who would feel those words. Their producer called Clayton in the middle of the night. Heavily pregnant, she came into the studio to record the single line.

Abdurraqib interrupts this story with the description of the stabbing and beating death of Meredith Hunter by the Hells Angels at a Rolling Stones concert the day before the release of “Gimme Shelter” as a single. Eighteen-year-old Meredith Hunter attended the now infamous 1969 Altamont Free Concert, where the Hells Angels served as security. The crowd and the Hells Angels got rowdier and rowdier. When Hunter climbed onto the stage, the Hells Angels grabbed him, beat him, chased him, and killed him. Hunter’s family could not afford a tombstone, so he was buried in an unmarked grave.

Clayton’s performance on the Stones’ song is contrasted with her solo career. She also recorded a version of “Gimme Shelter.” Her solo career never quite took off, even after she was featured in the documentary 20 Feet from Stardom. The lack of recognition frustrates Abdurraqib, who wishes he could give her the fame and roses she deserves.

Beyoncé’s 2016 performance wasn’t even her headlining performance, which was actually in 2013. However, the 2016 performance is so memorable because of her adeptness at career evolution. Her performance built upon both Michael Jackson’s legacy and the imagery of the Black Panthers. Reactions included anger at perceived criticism of the police and the law enforcement system.

Abdurraqib outlines his experiences at a hip healthcare startup where, despite its progressive exterior, people frequently questioned his name and his origins. Unknown co-workers ripped down Black Lives Matter stickers. When he took a day off to rest and mourn after a string of police killings of Black men, no one noticed his absence.

Abdurraqib watched Beyoncé’s “Formation” music video while waiting in an airport after bonding with a white fellow traveler over football and the upcoming Super Bowl. When Abdurraqib watched the video with the other traveler looking over his shoulder, the images condemning anti-Black police violence and George W. Bush’s response to Hurricane Katrina made the white traveler uncomfortable, opening an uncrossable void between them.

Elaine Brown is an example of Black women being expected to save the country. Brown led the Black Panther Party from 1974 to 1977, despite women being devalued in the movement. In the 2016 election, white women voters overwhelmingly voted for Trump, while Black women voters did the same for Clinton. Abdurraqib criticizes the well-meaning hope that Black women’s votes would thus save America. He rejects the idea that Black women should be responsible for solving the nation’s problems, which they often bear the brunt of.